Validity of CBTIs Essay Example for Free

Validity of CBTIs Essay Opinions regarding the trustworthiness of CBTIs vary considerably. On one extreme are those who argue that the practitioner can have a great deal of confidence in most commercially available test scoring and interpretation programs, since the testing industry usually maintains high standards for computerized assessment. At the other extreme are those who argue that for many programs there are few, if any, published reports of empirically demonstrated validity. Obviously, the validity of any CBTI system depends on the validity of the test for which it is developed: Discussion of this constraint imposed by the general status of psychological assessment lies beyond the scope of this article. Assuming validity of the measure itself, the validity of the CBTI depends on how closely the developer of the system conforms to actuarial findings for the instrument. A CBTI system is actuarial only if its interpretive output is wholly determined by statistical rules linking test scores to non test criteria. In reality, even the best CBTI systems are not fully actuarial, and many present no evidence of relying on actuarial findings to any extent. Moreland lamented that many CBTI systems are developed by individuals with no special qualifications who have never published a scholarly article on either the test in question or on the CBTI. (Forgionne 2005) Scholar noted several factors limiting validity of CBTIs. Among these are (a) unreliability of measures (including both the test itself as well as non test criteria on which test narratives may be based), (b) unwillingness to permit unclassified cases in situations of insufficient or ambiguous data, (c) inadequate attention to base rates and poorly analyzed cutting scores, (d) prediction of non test behaviors beyond those warranted by specific test findings, and (e) generalization across testing situations and populations without regard for potential moderators. Additional sources of error in CBTIs include miscommunication between the interpretation author and the programmer, as well as errors in the automated-interpretive algorithm itself. It bears noting that, with the exception of programming errors, these same shortcomings plague clinician-generated reports to an equal or greater degree. Thus, potential threats to the validity of CBTIs noted here should not be interpreted as favoring non computerized reports. Identifying potential sources of error in a CBTI system remains difficult. Consumers would be better positioned to evaluate specific components of CBTIs if interpretive rules were made available, although these are rarely presented because of proprietary concerns of the developers. Often only portions of CBTI systems have been validated. for example, restricted samples used in validity studies may activate only a subset of narrative statements in the interpretive library. Moreover, CBTIs are often rated for accuracy at the global level. rarely have discrete elements at the sentence or even paragraph level been examined empirically In addition, most CBTIs are closed systems that preclude the user from modifying or replacing either the decision rules or corresponding interpretations for specific components based on local norms, characteristics of the respondent known to moderate test-criterion relationships, or other considerations. Specific strategies for examining the validity of CBTIs vary but generally can be grouped into three approaches ranging from least to most restrictive: (a) customer satisfaction studies, (b) expert opinion modeling, and (c) external criterion studies. (Steiger 1998) Customer Satisfaction Studies In customer satisfaction studies, consumers rate one or more elements of the CBTI (eg, single ratings of the overall report vs. multiple ratings of discrete narrative elements) along one or more dimensions (eg, accuracy, clarity, internal consistency, omission of relevant information, and inclusion of trivial or misleading information). Because such studies do not rely on independent criterion data regarding the test respondent and therefore are less difficult and less costly to conduct, customer satisfaction studies of CBTI validity are more common than other types of CBTI validity research (although even customer satisfaction studies are infrequent relative to the number of commercial CBTI systems available). Several methodological considerations germane to CBTI customer satisfaction studies, among these were the need for (a) a relatively large, representative sample of users or potential users of that interpretive system. (b) Adequate sampling of test respondents both with respect to common socio demographic moderators, as well as the behavioral domains addressed by the test. And (c) specific ratings of discrete narrative elements along multiple dimensions such as those noted above. Even more critical than these are the need in customer satisfaction studies to control for various rater response sets, Considerable attention has been given in the literature to the impact of global, non differentiating descriptors or Barnum statements on ratings of perceived accuracy. As noted, various studies have shown that consumers assign greater accuracy to narratives with a higher saturation of nonspecific statements, particularly when these descriptions are attributed to persons of authority or expertise. Given this tendency, findings from the international study of computer-based MMPI-2 reports might be regarded as less than compelling, a limitation also suggested. (Martinsons 1999)

Air Bags Can Kill :: Free Essay Writer

Air Bags Can Kill Even though air bags are designed to save lives, they can be harmful or fatal to some people. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has recognized this concern and has made efforts to reduce injuries caused by air bag deployment by allowing the installation of a switch that turns off air bags. But in order to have a switch installed, the driver must file a request for an air bag on-off switch. People shouldn’t have to seek permission from the government to disable a device that has been found to be responsible for many deaths from their vehicles.According to The Oracle, â€Å"Turning off the airbags†(http://zephyr.oracle.usf.edu/archive/199711/19971119/19971119 comment1.html), when an airbag deploys, there is an explosion in the dash and steering wheel that releases the airbags at a speed of 200 mph. This force has been found to be the cause of many deaths, mostly being children. And the explosion that propels the airbag can cause chemical burns and even blindness. The dangers of airbags are so great that car manufacturers now put warning labels in vehicles explaining the dangers. Now, according to CNN, â€Å"Government announces rules for air bag switches,†(http://www.cnn.com/US/9711/18/airbags.presser/index.html), if the owner of a vehicle or a passenger has a medical condition which would put them at a greater risk from airbags, then they can apply permission to disable the airbags in their vehicle. This also applies if a child must ride in the front seat. But it doesn’t protect people who would need to drive someone else’s car, or people who would give someone else’s children a ride. It will only protect the vehicle’s owner and immediate family. Although passing the rule that allows the owner of a vehicle to disable the airbags is a good start in saving lives, it is not enough. Everyone can’t have switches installed in their vehicles, just people who meet the requirements set by the NHSTA. The government shouldn’t have to decide whether or not air bags pose a treat to individual passengers and drivers. As Henry Thoreau says in â€Å"Civil Disobedience† Conversations p.642, â€Å"government is best which governs least.† We just don’t need laws on airbags at all. It would be more practical for the driver of the car to make the choice if the airbags should be on or off. If there is to be a law passed, then it should require auto manufactures to put shutoff switches on all vehicles equipped with airbags.

Legal Aspects of a Business Essay

Introduction When starting up a new business it is very important to look at the legal aspects which will influence the company in the future. In this part of the information file there will be the most important legal aspects for running a student company. First there is the selection of business form, in which there will be a compairison between the different possible forms. Afterwards a description of how the student company will work with contracts and partners. And finally there is an explanation of the typical dutch legal aspects such as profit tax and dividend. Business form Most important before starting the actual business is to compare the different possible legal business forms to make sure that it suits the intentions of the entrepreneurs. First the expanation per legal form will be given and afterwards a choice will be made for the student company itself. There are three basic legal business forms which can be chosen when starting up a new company: sole proprietorship, partnership and corporation. Each will be described shortly and afterwards the form of the student company will be given. Sole proprietorship The sole proprietorship is the oldest, most common, and simplest form of business organization. A sole proprietorship is a business owned and managed by one person. The prevalent characteristic of a sole proprietorship is that the owner is inseparable from the business. Because they are the same entity, the owner of a sole proprietorship has complete control over the business, its operations, and is financially and legally responsible for all debts and legal actions against the business. Another aspect of the â€Å"same  entity† aspect is that taxes on a sole proprietorship are determined at the personal income tax rate of the owner. In other words, a sole proprietorship does not pay taxes separately from the owner. A sole proprietorship is a good business organization for an individual starting a business that will remain small, does not have great exposure to liability, and does not justify the expenses of incorporating and ongoing corporate formalitie. Corporation A corporation is a business entity which is owned by an individual or group of individuals and they run a business that legally exists. A corporate body is formed to regulate and manage business. People work as a unit in a corporation and produce the value that will generate income. A lot of employment is generated by corporations and they have now a big impact on economic growth and the social development of any country that operates in the free market system. A corporation has rights and responsibilities just like people have, and can also be liable to the processes of law just as an individual can. The characteristics of a corporation are the limited liability of shareholders, management being delegated to a board of directors, ownership by shareholders, transferable shares and that it has a separate legal personality. Relevance to Student company The fact that the student company will sell shares and therefore will be owned by the shareholders, the student company will be a corporation. Big advantage of this legal form is the spreading of the potential business risks because of the large amounts of shareholders. Disadvantages for the entrepreneurs is the limited power within the company because of the â€Å"voice† of the shareholders and sharing the possible profit with the shareholders. Within shareholder meetings important decisions or problems will subject and together with the entrepreneurs the business strategies are set. Contracts with other parties Because the student company will be a trading company it is very important to make clear arrangements with the suppliers, customers and the entrepreneurs  itself. This will split the the risks of the entrepreneurs as well as the business partners in the buying cyclus. Because it is still not clear what kind of product or service the student company wil sell, this will be researched later on in the market research. Laws and taxes When somebody wants to start up a company within the netherlands this person should notify the Inland Revenue as soon as they know when their company plans to start business. If this person starts as sole trader, a partnership, a limited partnership or a partnership under common firm, he or she can register the company for the Inland Revenue and the trade register at the same time. This can be done at the Chamber of Commerce. It is to your advantage to provide this information at an early stage: new companies which have made investments in their business often receive money back following their first value added tax return .This is because a new business often pays more value added tax in the beginning than it has actually charged. Value added tax It is almost always compulsory for businesses to charge clients value added tax. Businesses are nearly always liable to charge value added tax to their clients. The rate is 6% or 19% depending on the type of product or service. The value added tax which a company receive from the client must be paid to the Inland Revenue. The value added tax which the company has paid out itself to the suppliers can be offset against this. Value added tax is paid either monthly or quarterly, depending on the type of business and the level of turnover. Corporation tax If the company is a private company with limited liability, the owners will be liable to pay corporation tax. Corporation or corporate income tax is levied on companies established in the Netherlands and on certain companies not established in the Netherlands, which receive income from the Netherlands .In this context, the term â€Å"company† includes companies with a capital consisting of share, co-operatives, mutual insurance and credit companies, foundations and other legal persons incorporated under civil law, when they administer an enterprise, funds for common account, and most  publicly-controlled industrial and commercial undertakings. Basis of assessment Profits in the widest sense, with a number of additions or deductions. The determination of the taxable profits corresponds largely with the determination of profits taxable under personal income tax, including the deductibility of losses from other years. Exemptions Legal persons whose activities are of a social or charitable nature or otherwise in the public interest are exempted from corporation tax. Exempted categories of profit are those corresponding to the relevant exemptions under personal income tax. Furthermore the participation exemption applies to all dividends, gains and losses related to the holding of at least 5% of the shares in a subsidiary. This rule, preventing economic double taxation, is in general equally applicable to dividend deriving from domestic and foreign subsidiaries. The loss related to the winding-up of a subsidiary is, under certain conditions, deductible by the parent company. The deductibility of interest paid on non-functional loans and loans related to a reshuffle of participations within the group is restricted to certain circumstances. Another amendment permits companies to depreciate loss-making participations of 25% or more during the first five years after acquisition. Special features Fiscal unity: a company which holds 100% of the shares in a Dutch subsidiary may request to be qualified as a â€Å"fiscal unity†. However, certain conditions apply. It is possible for a fiscal unity to be consisted of more than two companies. The subsidiaries are considered to be absorbed by the parent. As a result, negative results of companies belonging to the unity can be compensated horizontally with positive results of the others. Interest paid to a group company in respect of the acquisition of shares in Dutch operating companies cannot be set off against the profit of these operating companies. Regime for investment funds: provided that all current income is distributed to shareholders and a number of other conditions are met, an  investment company or fund is entitled to add capital gains on securities and real property to a reinvestment reserve and to a rate of nil per cent on the remaining profit.

Illegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration - 1100 Words

Illegal immigration Over the past few years illegal immigration has become a bigger problem. Statistics reveal that more and more immigrants are entering the country illegally by crossing the borders. If something is not done soon, this may get out of hand and be to gone far not to handle. The number of illegal immigrants have gone up over the past years drastically In 2011, there were 40 million immigrants in the U.S. Of that 11.1 million were illegal. Although the number of illegal immigrants has leveled off it still is a continuing problem that should be attended to. In the next few years the number of illegal immigrants will continue to increase. United Nations reported that 97% of the illegal immigrants who enter the U.S. Clandestinely across the nearly 2,000 mile Mexico border, but only 20% of those are caught. This proves that our border is our weakest link of our security system . This proves that immigrants are crossing the border into the U.S. And getting away with it. T o prevent this something needs to be done and improve and strengthen the the Mexico border soon. With more and more illegal immigrants entering the country, the number of immigrants will continue to climb and crime rates will rise also. If something is not done soon it will eventually become to big of a problem to handle. studies show that the population of illegal immigrants is increasing and it is becoming a bigger problem every year and needs to be attended to to make theShow MoreRelatedIllegal Immigration : Illegal Immigrants955 Words   |  4 PagesIllegal Immigration Problems In the United States, there are roughly eleven million people who can be classified as illegal immigrants, which is by far way too many. When it comes to the history of illegal immigrants, most United States citizens could be considered as an illegal immigrant. In the early years of American history, our ancestors fled into this country for better life styles and to start their own families. During this time there were not laws dealing with who could and could not enterRead MoreIllegal Immigrants : Illegal Immigration1627 Words   |  7 PagesIllegal Immigration in the US What does illegal immigration mean to a hard working, middle class worker providing for a family of four? What does illegal immigration mean to someone who is getting jobs taken right underneath them from illegal immigrants that are willing to work the same job for a lower paycheck? What does illegal immigration mean to someone who is in need for a job? Illegal immigration is an epidemic occurring in the United States of America, the land of the free (to the legal citizens)Read MoreIllegal Immigration : Illegal Immigrants949 Words   |  4 PagesIllegal immigrants have been a hot topic lately due to the popularity of this topic amongst the Republican Presidential Nominees, especially Donald Trump. These illegal immigrants bring various things to this country when they come. Some things are positive, such as a family simply seeking to find a better life, while some things are harmful to the United States, such as the amount of crime among illegal immigrants. In July 2015, the most re cent estimate of illegal immigrants was 11.2 million. ThisRead MoreIllegal Immigrants : Illegal Immigration1155 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Illegal Immigration is a huge topic especially in 2017, bringing in different aspects about illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrants are told to be killers, drug dealers, job stealers and whom also hurt the U.S. economy. Is this true? Could it possibly be that they do all of this to hurt the United States? Or could it be that they truly come here for the American Dream? On one side of people’s perspectives illegal immigrants come here to help provide for their family and don’t takeRead MoreIllegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration1902 Words   |  8 PagesSince the 1980s, the US government has undertaken initiatives to make its borders more non-porous to illegal immigration from its neighboring countries. The menace of illegal immigrants seeking better opportunities in the USA started reflecting in the 1970s. The migrating people are motivated by the better non-skilled or semi-skilled employment opportunities in the USA and the relatively higher remuneration for se rvices rendered in the USA than in the neighbor countries especially Mexico (HansonRead MoreIllegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration1286 Words   |  6 Pages Undocumented Immigration An analysis of illegal immigration in the United States reveals one challenge facing the banks and other institutions: whether to provide banking and other services to the illegal immigrants or to treat them as criminals because they are illegal and therefore, not to provide them with banking and other services. The articles, â€Å"Crossing the Line† by Stein and â€Å"Illegal Immigrants – They’re Money,† by Rodriguez discuss the impact of illegal immigration in the United StatesRead MoreIllegal Immigration And Illegal Immigrants1335 Words   |  6 PagesIllegal immigration has been one of the main topics during the last three presidential election. Many bills and laws have been passed in order to keep them out but is it really necessary to neglect illegal immigrant? Most Americans believe that illegal immigrants are only people of Mexicans or Latin American descent but illegal immigrants can be from any race or country. Illegal immigration is defined by United States Department of Homeland Security as â€Å"†¦ all foreign-born non-citizens who are notRead MoreIllegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration964 Words   |  4 Pages Attention Step (quotation, question, or story) About four months ago in government class, we had a class discussion. The topic was illegal immigration. One student said that America should send the illegal immigrants back to their country because they are taking American’s jobs. He stated that he would send his dad back to Mexico because he is an illegal immigrant. Going around the circle that we created, everyone gave their opinions, most disagreed, but some agreed with the student. When it wasRead MoreIllegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration1044 Words   |  5 Pagesmany Americans take for granted. Many of the illegal immigrants come to America where they hope to obtain the freedom that is not given in their country. There is a serious problem with the immigration policy: it is very difficult for immigrants to become an actual U.S. citizen. If the policy were to be readjusted, and the length of time the immigrant has to live in the United States before they can become a citizen were to be shortened, illegal immigratio n could be slowed or even stopped. AccordingRead MoreIllegal Immigrants And Illegal Immigration1710 Words   |  7 PagesIllegal Immigration in the US What does illegal immigration mean to a hardworking, middle class worker providing for a family of four? What does illegal immigration mean to someone who is getting jobs taken right underneath them from illegal immigrants that are willing to work the same job for a lower paycheck? Illegal immigration is an epidemic occurring in the United States of America, the land of the free (to the legal citizens). There are many reasons why immigration is harmful and in some cases